1. Introduction

Retention reservoirs with sufficient capacity play a critical role in floodplain protection, water management stabilization, and enhancing flood safety. Due to observed climate changes and increasingly intense precipitation events, many existing structures no longer meet their original design standards. Consequently, raising reservoir embankments becomes a necessary modernization measure. This paper analyzes selected methods of increasing the crest elevation of reservoir embankments in terms of efficiency and applicability.

2. Technical and Functional Requirements

One of the primary threats to reservoir embankments is overtopping, which occurs when the freeboard is insufficient relative to the reservoir’s maximum water level. This can result from flow rates exceeding design assumptions, often driven by increased rainfall intensity and reduced catchment retention due to ongoing urbanization [1].

Flooding can also result from internal erosion due to seepage through the embankment body or its foundation. This typically arises when preferential seepage paths exist—such as inadequately protected culverts, sluices, or utility installations—as well as from animal burrows or construction defects. Additional risks include suffusion and piping, particularly in soils susceptible to internal erosion. Slope instability may also occur, driven by surface erosion, deformation of the embankment core, or cracking [2].

Key considerations when raising embankments of retention reservoirs include:

• Bearing capacity of the existing embankment body,
• Structural integrity and watertightness of the current structure,
• Subsoil conditions and foundation characteristics,
• Spatial constraints (e.g., proximity to existing infrastructure),
• Hydrodynamic loads during operational conditions.

Furthermore, the adopted solution should mitigate the risk of both internal and surface erosion, while ensuring durability and ease of maintenance.

3. Review of Technologies

3.1. Conventional Method – Earth Fill Embankments

The most traditional and widely used method involves constructing an earth fill crest extension using locally available soils, without incorporating structural materials such as geosynthetics or precast components. This method is based purely on geomechanical principles, involving appropriate layering, compaction, and quality control of geotechnical parameters. Key aspects include proper compaction of each layer, ensuring slope stability, and conducting filtration analyses under steady-state and transient flow conditions post-augmentation.

Disadvantages: Requires widening of the embankment base; significant space requirements; risk of post-construction settlement.

Advantages: Low material cost, easy availability of fill material.

3.2. Use of Geosynthetics

Geosynthetics—such as geogrids, geomembranes, geotextiles, and geocomposites—can reinforce the embankment crest extension, enhance structural stability, control seepage, and minimize filtration.

Disadvantages: Requires specialist installation; higher unit costs.

Advantages: Reduced layer thickness, improved mechanical performance.

3.3. Reinforced Concrete Cappings and Precast Elements

Applied in scenarios where lateral expansion is constrained or where high mechanical durability is required—such as in industrial or technical reservoirs.

Disadvantages: High cost, potential difficulties with expansion joints and watertightness.

Advantages: High durability, small spatial footprint, fast installation using prefabricated modules.

3.4. Steel Sheet Piles

Steel sheet piles (e.g., Larsen-type) are a commonly applied solution in hydraulic and water engineering. Their primary function is to seal the embankment body and facilitate crest elevation without increasing the embankment footprint.

Disadvantages: Requires heavy construction equipment; susceptible to corrosion in aquatic environments.

Advantages: Very high mechanical strength; suitable for deep cut-off walls; capable of withstanding high hydrodynamic pressures.

3.5. Vinyl (PVC) Sheet Piles

Vinyl sheet piles are lightweight synthetic interlocking panels primarily used for sealing and elevating embankments under moderate loading conditions.

Disadvantages: Limited section lengths; lower mechanical strength; longer profiles may require steel guide structures.

Advantages: Corrosion and UV resistant; low weight; simple installation without heavy machinery; visually aesthetic.

4. Comparative Analysis

This section compares the selected embankment raising technologies based on four core criteria: cost, durability, construction complexity, and required spatial footprint. This comparative framework supports the selection of the most appropriate method based on local conditions and project budget constraints.

Tradycyjna nadbudowa wału ziemnego cechuje się najniższym kosztem, lecz wymaga największej przestrzeni i jest najbardziej czasochłonna. Zastosowanie geosyntetyków oraz prefabrykowanych elementów pozwala znacząco skrócić czas wykonania i zmniejszyć wymagania terenowe, jednak kosztem większych nakładów finansowych. Ścianki stalowe wyróżniają się wysoką trwałością i nośnością, jednak w środowisku wodnym są szczególnie podatne na korozję, co może istotnie wpłynąć na ich żywotność i koszty utrzymania. Ścianki winylowe są odporne na korozję i UV, lecz można je stosować wyłącznie w projektach, gdzie nie występują duże siły parcia – ze względu na ograniczoną sztywność i nośność konstrukcji wykonanych z profili termoplastycznych.

Conventional earth fill extensions remain the most cost-effective option, albeit space- and time-intensive. The use of geosynthetics and precast elements significantly reduces construction time and spatial requirements but involves higher capital expenditure. Steel sheet piles offer high structural strength but are vulnerable to corrosion, which can impact lifecycle costs and durability. Vinyl sheet piles present a corrosion-resistant, lightweight alternative, but are limited in load-bearing capacity and stiffness, making them suitable only for moderate load applications.

5. Summary

This article presents a technical review and comparative analysis of selected technologies for raising retention reservoir embankments. Both traditional and advanced methods are evaluated, including geosynthetic reinforcement, concrete precast systems, and both steel and vinyl sheet pile walls. The analysis is based on four key selection criteria: cost, durability, implementation complexity, and spatial requirements.

Earth fill extensions offer the lowest upfront cost but demand the greatest space and time. Geosynthetics and prefabricated elements provide faster construction and enhanced durability, albeit at a higher cost. Steel sheet piles are structurally robust but prone to corrosion in hydraulic environments. Vinyl sheet piles provide a corrosion-resistant and easy-to-install solution, though limited to lower-load applications due to their reduced stiffness.

Technology selection should always be preceded by a detailed assessment of site-specific technical, spatial, and economic conditions, with a strong emphasis on long-term durability, watertightness, and safety of the hydraulic structure.

6. References

1. Hurtland Sp. z o.o. (2018). Modernizacja wałów przeciwpowodziowych – zastosowanie maty bentonitowej Bentomat. [online] [Accessed 29 Jul 2025] https://hurtland.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Modernizacja_walow_walow_przeciwpowodziowych_bentomat_mata-bentonitowa.pdf

Vinyl sheet piles have become a common solution for many engineering applications, thanks to their durability, resistance to corrosion, and ease of installation. It must however be remembered that owing to the specificity of the thermoplastic material, certain aspects of vinyl sheet piles design process require special approach compared to traditional steel counterparts.

Vinyl Sheet Pile Design Specificity

Due to the significantly lower Young’s modulus of PVC compared to steel, and consequently greater deformability of vinyl sheet piles, special attention must be paid to displacement analysis. Such material property makes the allowable displacement rather than the stresses the critical factor determining dimensions in designing structures involving PVC sheet piles, especially in the case of cantilever walls. Displacements in the sheet piles directly influence the performance of the structure in the retaining soil, its resistance to water pressure, and the overall stability. Key factors that determine displacements include:

• Soil properties: The type, density, cohesion, and friction angle of soil significantly affect how the sheet piles interact with the ground. Different soil conditions, such as sandy, clayey, or mixed strata, can lead to highly variable displacement behaviors, underscoring the importance of accurate soil characterization.
• Water table level: Hydrostatic pressure from groundwater can induce additional forces, affecting displacements. Seasonal fluctuations in the water table further complicate these calculations.
• External loads: Surface loads, such as traffic or construction activities, may exert lateral forces on the piles.

The variability of displacements across different ground conditions makes precise estimation crucial. For example, loose sands may experience greater lateral movements than stiff clays under similar loading conditions. Advanced numerical modeling and analytical methods, supported by field measurements, are essential to predict displacements accurately and optimize the design of vinyl sheet pile systems.

Norms and standards serve as a guiding framework to ensure safety, reliability, and consistency in engineering practices. For vinyl sheet pile projects adherence to the following standards is particularly important:

1. PN-EN 1997-1: This standard provides guidelines for geotechnical design, including principles for analyzing soil-structure interaction and calculating displacements.
2. PN-EN 1997-2: This standard outlines procedures for site investigations, laboratory testing, and field measurements. It emphasizes determining soil properties to support precise displacement analysis.
3. Local Regulations: In Poland, the Rozporządzenie Ministra Transportu, Budownictwa i Gospodarki Morskiej z dnia 25 kwietnia 2012 r. specifies the requirements for determining geotechnical conditions for construction projects, including categorizing geotechnical complexity.

Compliance with these norms ensures that the design accounts for all potential risks, providing a reliable foundation for the project.

Accurate Displacement Estimation

Ground investigation should be treated as the cornerstone of any geotechnical project with the primary objectives of such analysis  including:

• Characterizing soil types and properties: determining the composition, strength, and deformation parameters of the soil layers. For instance, sandy soils may require different considerations compared to clayey soils due to their varying drainage and compaction characteristics.
• Identifying geological hazards: detecting potential risks such as liquefaction in loose sandy layers, sinkholes in karst terrains, or landslides on steep slopes that may compromise the project.
• Assessing groundwater conditions: understanding the water table level, seasonal variations, and hydrostatic pressure is crucial for evaluating seepage forces and designing effective drainage systems.

A comprehensive ground investigation involves several steps:

1. Desk/preliminary research: reviewing historical data, geological maps, and previous site investigation reports to understand general conditions.
2. Field investigations: conducting borehole drilling, soil sampling, and in situ tests such as the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), Cone Penetration Test (CPT), and vane shear tests for soft clays.
3. Laboratory testing: analyzing soil samples to determine mechanical properties, such as shear strength, compressibility, and permeability; tests like triaxial compression and consolidation tests provide detailed insights.
4. Reporting: compiling findings into detailed documentation, including geotechnical reports, stratigraphic profiles, and recommendations for design and construction.

Proper documentation derived from ground investigations serves as the foundation for:

• Selecting appropriate construction methods: for example, determining whether pre-drilling is necessary in dense soils to facilitate vinyl sheet pile installation.
• Designing safe and cost-effective foundations: tailoring designs based on soil bearing capacity and settlement potential.
• Planning excavation support and dewatering systems: ensuring stability during construction by addressing seepage and soil strength reduction due to groundwater.

By incorporating insights from detailed investigations, engineers can mitigate risks and optimize the performance of vinyl sheet pile structures.

Ground conditions play a pivotal role in displacement analysis. The stiffness, strength, and drainage characteristics of the soil dictate how sheet piles interact with the surrounding medium. For instance:

1. Soft Clays: these soils often result in higher displacements due to their low stiffness and high compressibility. Accurate estimation of undrained shear strength and consolidation parameters is vital.
2. Dense Sands: while offering higher resistance, dense sands can still exhibit notable displacements under dynamic or cyclic loading. Determining the relative density and angle of internal friction is crucial.
3. Layered Soils: mixed strata introduce complexity, as contrasting stiffness and strength parameters can lead to differential movements. Detailed profiling and parameter estimation are essential to mitigate risks.

Based on Eurocode 7, the minimum investigation depth is:

• 2 meters below the lowest point of the foundation or excavation in favorable geological conditions.
• 5 meters below the lowest point if the geological structure is unknown.
• Deeper if weak soils are present, ensuring the properties of underlying strata are well understood.

Investigation points must be strategically located to capture the full variability of ground conditions. For linear or slope-adjacent structures, extended investigation zones are necessary to assess slope stability and fault lines. The recommended spacing of investigation points is 15–200 meters, varying with project type, foundation type, and geological complexity. Incorporating high-quality geotechnical data into displacement analysis models ensures:

• Improved Predictive Accuracy: reliable inputs lead to realistic deformation predictions, preventing underestimation or overdesign.
• Enhanced Safety Margins: identifying critical conditions reduces the likelihood of failure or serviceability issues.
• Cost Optimization: avoiding unnecessary conservatism in design translates to material and execution savings.

Summary

The foundation of accurate displacement analysis lies in comprehensive ground investigation. By understanding and accounting for site-specific soil behavior, engineers can ensure safe, efficient, and cost-effective designs. For projects involving vinyl sheet piles, calculating displacements with precision, adhering to norms, and conducting thorough ground investigations are non-negotiable elements of the design and construction process. These practices not only ensure structural integrity but also contribute to sustainable and cost-efficient solutions. By prioritizing these aspects, engineers can confidently address the challenges of complex geotechnical environments and deliver successful outcomes.

References

• Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design – Part 1 (PN-EN 1997-1:2008)
• Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design – Part 2 (PN-EN 1997-2)
• Rozporządzenie Ministra Transportu, Budownictwa i Gospodarki Morskiej z dnia 25 kwietnia 2012
• https://inzynierbudownictwa.pl/terenowe-metody-badan-podloza-gruntowego/?fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR1e730oZb9ijxJ-swcOnbEuIjbvJVChuDh4LaBMLpJ-MBDoye_9MnB5NoQ_aem_n2oVSY9VvVnlrVVaTWV06g
• https://www.pietrucha.pl/en/offer/civil-engineering/grodzice-winylowe/aadvantages

Effective flood protection is a combination of many elements: thoughtful spatial planning, the use of warning systems, public education, with the key factors being proper design and construction of technical infrastructure using materials that, when a threat arises, will allow control over the disaster without harming the environment.

One type of threat is the large body of water, whose arrival can be anticipated to some extent. Another kind of threat is water that appears almost imperceptibly. These phenomena are known as flash floods because they can occur within just a few minutes of intense rainfall or the sudden release of water, such as from a dam failure. Flash floods, contrary to common belief, occur not only in cities and areas with low soil permeability but also in mountainous regions and valleys. Fast-moving water destroys buildings, road and energy infrastructure, and also threatens human lives. The aftermath of the wave includes soil erosion, water pollution, and damage to ecosystems.

The dangers of flooding are often visible in images from around the world, and recently, we were reminded of this in Poland as well. Fortunately, no one is debating the need to invest in flood protection measures anymore. However, it’s important to remember that the construction site for such infrastructure must meet current requirements, not only economic but also ecological, at every stage: from design, production, and transportation to construction work, and finally to its operational phase.

To build and modernize various types of flood protection structures, including embankments and anti-filtration walls, sheet piles are used, and in recent years, the vinyl variant has been becoming increasingly popular.

Bespoke and circular

• The production of vinyl sheet piles uses recycled materials, and the profiles themselves are fully recyclable.
• The type and length of the profile is selected to comply with the project requirements. There is no need to cut them on the construction site, and waste disposal is not required.
• PVC is also a material resistant to corrosion, UV radiation, and the effects of saltwater.
• Vinyl sheet piles do not corrode, degrade over time, or require regular maintenance or additional anti-corrosion treatments in later years, which reduces operational costs.

Transport Costs

A key element in the construction project budget is transportation. The amount of the budget allocation depends not only on how far the materials need to be transported but also on whether the transport, due to their weight, requires additional measures. Transporting heavy elements is not always possible during the day, and stops increase costs. Transporting heavy materials also generates higher CO2 emissions, as it requires more fuel, stronger vehicles, and specialized loading and unloading equipment.

Once the materials arrive at the construction site, lighter materials can be assembled faster, using equipment that consumes less energy. Vinyl sheet piles are lighter than their counterparts made with other technologies, primarily due to the density of the material.

Instant Sealing

Compared to traditional methods such as steel sheet piles or cement-bentonite mixing technology (CDMM), vinyl sheet piles stand out due to their immediate sealing after installation. Thanks to the use of a soft PVC gasket, they provide effective protection against water infiltration.

Summary

In the case of investments in flood protection infrastructure, the use of vinyl sheet piles not only enhances flood safety but also optimizes costs and project timelines. It’s important to remember that the success of constructing a flood protection structure depends on choosing the right supplier, one who will provide not only a high-quality product but also logistical support, punctuality, and technical advice.

Modern construction presents engineers with new challenges related to efficiency, ecological solutions, and cost savings. In response to these needs, there is growing interest in vinyl sheet piles, which are gaining recognition not only in hydraulic engineering but also in road and rail infrastructure. Thanks to their exceptional properties, such as corrosion resistance, lightweight, and versatility of applications, vinyl sheet piles offer significant advantages compared to traditional steel sheet piles.

The use of vinyl sheet piles in infrastructure construction worldwide is becoming increasingly common, driven by their numerous benefits. In the face of the growing demands of modern construction projects, vinyl sheet piles are becoming a vital alternative to traditional materials like steel or concrete, offering modern solutions tailored to diverse conditions and needs.

Competitive advantages of vinyl sheet piles

Vinyl sheet piles have several competitive advantages over traditional steel sheet piles. The key benefits include:

• Corrosion Resistance: Unlike steel sheet piles, which are susceptible to corrosion, vinyl sheet piles made from hard PVC are resistant to both freshwater and saltwater. This makes them ideal for marine environments where traditional materials degrade.
• Aesthetics and Customization: Vinyl sheet piles can be produced in various colors according to customer expectations, allowing for better integration into the surroundings.
• Economy: Vinyl sheet piles are significantly cheaper than steel ones, and their light weight means lower transportation and installation costs. Moreover, these piles are made from recycled materials, reducing their carbon footprint.
• Durability and Longevity: Thanks to their high resistance to biological and chemical factors, vinyl sheet piles can retain their functionality for over 50 years, making them a very effective long-term solution.

Applications of vinyl sheet piles

Given the above advantages, vinyl sheet piles are widely used in infrastructure construction, particularly in projects related to erosion protection, quay construction, or slope stabilization. Example applications include:

• Quay and Breakwater Construction: Vinyl sheet piles are ideal for building quays and breakwaters, where corrosion resistance and resistance to biological effects in the marine environment are crucial.
• Slope Protection: Due to their light weight and ease of installation, vinyl sheet piles are an effective solution for slope stabilization and landslide protection.
• Flood Barrier: In urbanized areas where rainwater can cause flooding, vinyl sheet piles serve as an effective barrier protecting infrastructure from flooding.
• Small retaining walls: Vinyl sheet piles are used in road and railway construction, where they function as retaining walls and erosion protection. Additionally, their light weight and ease of installation allow for quick and efficient use in areas with limited access.

Railway construction

In railway construction, vinyl sheet piles are primarily used for slope stabilization and landslide protection. A notable example is the reconstruction of the railway line between Skierniewice and Warsaw West, where GW-610/9.0 vinyl sheet piles were used to stabilize an embankment on unstable ground. The strength of this system effectively prevented potential soil slippage.

Another example is the use of vinyl sheet piles on the railway line in Braniewo, where the GW-610/7.2 profile was utilized to stabilize an embankment at risk of landslides due to the presence of organic soils. The application of vinyl sheet piles helped reduce vertical settlements and increase the slope’s stability, leading to the long-term durability of the structure.

Another project worth mentioning is the one carried out in Stalowa Wola, where GW-270/5.5 vinyl sheet piles were used to reinforce a damaged embankment and stabilize the slope. This project required an effective solution due to the landslide risk that could have endangered the safety of the railway infrastructure. Vinyl sheet piles proved to be the ideal solution, providing durable stabilization and protection against further embankment degradation.

Road construction

In the road sector, vinyl sheet piles also play a crucial role, particularly in slope stabilization along roads and erosion protection. The use of vinyl sheet piles in road construction helps protect embankments and prevent landslides, which is especially important in regions with unstable soils. An example of such an application is the project in Marklowice, where GW-458/12.0 vinyl sheet piles were used to construct a retaining wall along a road, effectively securing the slope and providing protection against erosion. Another example is the project in Węgrów, where vinyl sheet piles were utilized for slope stabilization.

Additionally, vinyl sheet piles can also be used for the construction of retention tanks. An example of such a project is the construction of a retention tank as part of the S3 expressway on section 1 from Świnoujście to Dargobądz, where GW-460/5.5 vinyl sheet piles were employed. This project perfectly illustrates the versatility of vinyl sheet piles in various construction applications, from soil stabilization to retention structures.

Additionally, vinyl sheet piles can also be used for the construction of retention tanks. An example of such a project is the construction of a retention tank as part of the S3 expressway on section 1 from Świnoujście to Dargobądz, where GW-460/5.5 vinyl sheet piles were employed. This project perfectly illustrates the versatility of vinyl sheet piles in various construction applications, from soil stabilization to retention structures.

Another application of vinyl sheet piles is the construction of cut-off walls, designed to protect the road substructure from underwashing. Such a project can significantly enhance the durability and safety of road infrastructure by preventing the adverse effects of water on the road’s structure.

Summary

In summary, vinyl sheet piles are an innovative and effective solution in infrastructure construction. Their numerous advantages make them increasingly chosen as an alternative to traditional building materials, offering durability, aesthetics, and savings both in the short and long term.

From an economic standpoint, vinyl sheet piles have a longer lifespan compared to traditional materials. Their resistance to environmental factors means they require less maintenance, translating into lower operating costs over the long term. Moreover, vinyl offers a wide range of colors and finishes, allowing for better adaptation of sheet piles to project requirements and the aesthetics of the surroundings.

Bibliography

1. Army Corps of Engineers, A study of the Long-Term Applications of Vinyl Sheet Piles, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH,03755, 08.2003
2. Army Corps of Engineers, Design of sheet pile walls. Engineer Manual 1110-2-2504. (2014). Washington: Department of the Department of the U.S.

Flash floods in urban areas are becoming an increasingly frequent and severe phenomenon. The rise in the frequency and intensity of rainfall, combined with the sealing of soil in cities, leads to a rapid water run-off and flooding.

In some cases, urban flash floods occur even dozens of times more often than just 15-20 years ago. What should be done to be better prepared for such situations?

For years, the definition of a flash flood only included river flash floods recorded by dedicated institutions mainly in mountainous and highland areas. Nowadays, in the era of widespread access to social media, the term “flash flood” is primarily associated with so-called urban flash floods, which not only happen more and more often but are also becoming increasingly destructive.

It does not rain but it pours

There are two main factors contributing to the increase in flash floods, to put it simply. The first is climate change and the associated change in rainfall patterns. Although the total annual rainfall doesn’t change significantly, the frequency of rain decreases. It rains less often, but when it does, it is much more intense. This leads to more frequent and deeper droughts interspersed with heavy downpours – that’s why flash floods occur faster and more violently.

High-intensity rainfall events are becoming more frequent, which means that a significant part of the area can be flooded, especially in summer. A single rainfall event can cause even dozens of local floods, whereas rainfall with the same intensity caused less severe consequences in the not-so-distant past.

The second factor is very local and depends on the land cover structure. Sealing the ground intensifies the effects of the rainfall events, as water is unable to infiltrate the subsoil. Additionally, this doesn’t go hand in hand with the development and proper planning of greenery in many cities.

Urbanized areas are characterized by climatic conditions that differ from the surrounding areas. It rains more in cities than outside their borders. This happens due to, among other things, the presence of urban heat islands, which contribute to the formation of vertically developed clouds that are the source of heavy rainfall. However, it’s important to remember that each such urbanized area has different conditions.

On the other hand, it’s a fact that a 1% increase in surface sealing translates to a 3.3% increase in flood risk (Blum, 2020). Other factors that play a role include elements such as land slopes, the condition of underground infrastructure, the degree of soil moisture, and soil permeability. Therefore, it’s important to remember that two spatially close areas can have completely different characteristics and generate completely different reactions to the same intensity of rainfall.

The Role of Modeling

Highly precise and locally focused modeling studies are necessary to determine the threat.

Modeling also allows designers to find “tailor-made” solutions, meaning precisely matched retention measures that are hydraulically and environmentally effective, while also financially optimal.

Below we share a few examples of where our comprehensive, tailor-made solutions are used in urbanized areas in projects related to flood protection on the one hand, and increasing retention capacity on the other.

Gdańsk, the sponge city

Let us look at Gdańsk, an important port city located in Northern Poland, which has begun implementing a flood-resilience strategy based on small retention systems and green-blue infrastructure. Green areas are being gradually adapted to also fulfill retention functions. Municipal authorities are heavily investing in rain gardens, retention basins, and infiltration trenches. These solutions have become so widespread that the agglomeration is taking on the character of a sponge city.

Each city has its own unique conditions and predispositions. The first step is to thoroughly assess the existing situation, and then use the modeling results to plan investments.

Due to the dense development and underground infrastructure, urban areas are very difficult and expensive to invest in, so solutions need to be tailored to very specific local conditions.

Flood protection infrastructure of the city of Cracow

As part of the task “Improvement of flood safety in the Serafa river basin in the XIIth Bieżanów-Prokocim district of Cracow “, the investor, i.e. the state owned Polish Waters, decided to construct  additional flood protection infrastructure and our vinyl sheet piles were used in this project.

As in the case of the Złocień housing estate, also in Bieżanów the same vinyl sheet profile GW-610/9 with an integrated gasket was used, to ensure the tightness of the lock connections along the entire length of the sheet pile immediately at the time of the installation.

The wall made of vinyl sheet piles was intended to raise the maximum level of safe damming of water in the Serafa River bed, but also to extend the water filtration path in the ground. A total of 3 818 square meters of 1.5-2.0 m long sheet piles were used for the entire project.

The sheet piles were driven into the ground on one side of the riverbed, and in sections where it was deemed necessary according to the geotechnical analyses, on both sides of the Serafa river. In order to additionally reinforce the construction give it a more aesthetic appearance, the structure made of sheet piles was crowned with a system vinyl cap, also delivered by the Pietrucha Group.

In this project, the sheet piles were installed using the most popular method of installation, i.e. using a vibratory hammer. It is worth emphasizing, however, that the assembly took place in sections in a very densely built-up area. That is why, at some spots with limited access, the sheet piles were installed in a narrow excavation.

Thanks to the use of vinyl sheet pile technology with their numerous advantages, the densely developed areas along the Serafa River have been effectively and quickly protected against flooding.

In order to maintain accessibility and undisturbed pedestrian and vehicle traffic, where necessary the structures made of vinyl sheet piles were complemented with our FloodWarden modular barriers.

Poznań

Vinyl sheet piles and modular FloodWarden barriers complemented each other in a revitalization project of a reservoir with an area of 6,010 m2, located in a housing estate near Poznań, a large city located in Western Poland.

The well-worn and obsolete infrastructure in this area made it impossible to maintain a stable water level in the reservoir, and the sliding embankments posed a threat to the safety of the inhabitants.

The objective of the project was to develop the pond and the adjacent area to create a recreational spot for the local community, one that would also be an important element of water retention infrastructure.

Profiles GW 610/9 with a length of 3 m were used to create a continuous water-tight palisade protruding above the water level to a height of 15 cm so as to ensure the water retention quality of the reservoir. At the same time, the embankments of the pond were profiled to restore the recreational function.

1,090 square meters of sheet piles were used to construct the tight-wall, and the structure was topped with our system cap. The cap covered the sharp edges of the sheet piles, helped mask any irregularities, giving the wall an aesthetic appearance and protecting the structure against weather conditions.

In order to restore the water retention function of the reservoir, the original water discharge was also modernized by installing Flood Warden mobile barrier in the existing weir.

Bold decisions, integrated actions

In conclusion, the problem of flash floods in cities requires a comprehensive response. Combining retention infrastructure with green solutions, as well as taking into account the specifics of local terrain conditions, can significantly improve the safety and comfort of residents.

It is important to remember that flood protection is a task for everyone – local authorities, urban planners, architects, and residents themselves. Together, we can create cities more resilient to extreme weather events.

#floodprotection #floodbarrier #flashflood

Climate changes have been progressing at an increased pace. Climate changes have been progressing at an increased pace. According to the data gathered by the UE Copernicus Climate Change Service, 2023 has witnessed an unparalleled surge in global temperatures, setting a new record with an average annual value of 14.98°C, surpassing the previous high in 2016 by 0.17°C [1]. When taking measures to deal with such intensifying phenomena which take on a global character, it is necessary not only to effectively mitigate the consequences of climate change, but also to select tools and methods that will minimize the negative impact of the remedial activities carried out on the environment. In light of the above, vinyl sheet piling used in civil engineering and hydrotechnical investments seem to be of the solutions worth considering because of their low carbon footprint and the fact that they are manufactured from recycled material.

The effects of rising air temperature are on one hand flash floods and inundations as a result of heavy rainfalls and, on the other hand, long dry periods which lead to large scale draughts.

n this article, we present the environmental aspects of vinyl sheet piling manufactured from recycled material in Poland by the Pietrucha Group where 100% of energy used in the production comes from renewable energy sources. Contrary to steel sheet piling, the use of PVC profiles in hydrotechnical and civil engineering projects is marked by significantly lower greenhouse gases emissions, lower use of natural resources and minimal impact on the local ecosystems and human health.

PVC or steel? Comparative analysis of environmental impact

Scientists from the Faculty of Industrial Ecology of the Łódź Technical University have carried out comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of vinyl sheet piling and steel sheet piling and subsequently have calculated the carbon footprint of the two products [2]. LCA is one of the most advanced environmental management tools included in the international standards ISO 14000. This tool is used to determine the environmental impact of the various phases of a product’s life cycle (from extraction of the resources needed to manufacture the product to its disposal). The reference value (the so-called functional unit) for which the environmental impact is determined is often the unit of the manufactured product or the unit function it performs. The life cycle assessment methodology represents a very broad approach of environmental impact – from the cradle to the grave. As the cradle, the processes of extraction of natural resources are most often assumed, while the processes of waste disposal are the grave.

The analysis was based on the following assumptions: five metre long profiles are manufactured in Poland and then transported to the Netherlands to be used in a construction intended to protect a 500 metre embankment of a canal. According to the investor, the construction was intended to last for 50 years. For the purpose of the analysis, the most popular GW 610/6,4 pvc profile was used, since the width, strength parameter and low weight of this profile type is ideal for such applications. As far as the steel profiles are concerned, two types of profiles differing in wall thickness were compared 7 mm and 13 mm. The thicker steel sheet piling is used in projects where they are exposed to expedited corrosion due to differing water level. The amount of transport units required to deliver the defined quantity of profiles is presented in Table 1 below.

It was assumed that the means of transport of raw materials as well as products and waste (dismantled sheet piles) are lorries with a load capacity of 24 tons and the vehicles meet the EURO 4 emission standard and are used in European conditions. The outstanding data used for assessment was based on the latest data from reports on the consumption of energy at the raw material production and processing as well as during the manufacturing of the respective profiles. The analysis of the environmental impact was made using the SimaPro 7.3.0. software and the normalization indicators have been determined using ReCiPe Endpoint (H) for three endpoints:

• Human health
• Ecosystems
• Resources

The above indicators do not have a unit because the determined environmental impact is divided by a reference value expressed in the same unit in the normalization procedure. The indicator units  constitute dimensionless values. Additionally, the environmental impact assessment was also determined by the carbon footprint method, understood as the total sum of the greenhouse gas emissions caused directly or indirectly by a product. The emission unit is 1t of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂ eq).

The analysis has proved that environmental impact of steel sheet piles is from 207% to 807% higher than the one calculated for polyvinyl chloride sheet piles used in the same project.

Vinyl sheet piling serve the nature well: projects overview

Over the past years, vinyl sheet piling were in majority used to construct cut-off walls, for example to reinforce the water-tightness of flood embankments. Such projects have been carried out as part of actions undertaken to prevent the climate change consequences which are becoming more and more intense. When coupled with rapid urbanization, the adverse consequences of climate, change, such as floods, are threatening densely populated regions of the globe. As the area requiring prompt environmental action is expanding and more and more people are becoming afflicted by adverse consequences of climate change, the design engineers have started to look for solutions and technologies that would have low environmental impact when used in projects intended to protect the environment. This tendency, which has resulted in the growing popularity of vinyl sheet piles, allows for instant mitigation of threat with the simultaneous care about the future generations by way of minimizing the mid- and long-term environmental impact. The results of the LCA analysis referred to above, serve as a perfect confirmation of the above.

Innovative bird islands

The project LIFE.VISTULA.PL carried out in the area of the Goczałkowice Reservoir and the adjacent ponds, included in the Natura 2000 zone, serves as an excellent example of the arguments referred to above [3]. The main objective of the project supervised by the Regional Environmental Office in Katowice was the protection and improvement of the nesting grounds for 100% of population of night heron and 7% of population of common tern in the Upper Vistula River region. In this project, the vinyl sheet piling was used to reinforce causeways and especially to construct artificial islands for birds. The water level where the birds traditionally nested in dry season was very low, but in later months, due to heavy rainfall, the water level was rapidly and radically increasing causing damage to the nests. The crown of the wall made of PVC piles was erected 3 metres above the bottom of the reservoir. The construction was reinforced with special external rings and steel ties were installed in one of the rings (Picture 2).

As a result an island was created where the birds may safely nest during the peak water level at the Goczałkowice Reservoir (Picture 3).

Addressing the varying ground water level in a nature reserve

Vinyl sheet piles were also used in the Białe Ługi reserve in the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship in Southern Poland, which is also included in the Natura 2000 zone. As a result of the progressing climate change and aggressive drainage, the reserve suffered from rapid lowering of ground water level, which caused degeneration of animal habitat. In order to address this environmental catastrophe, the Regional Environmental Office in Kielce decided to use vinyl sheet piling to prevent the ground water outflow and drainage in this valuable ecosystem [4].

In conclusion, it is worth highlighting that vinyl sheet piles are highly resistant to environmental factors, including UV radiation and acidic environment and may successfully be applied in innovative applications.

Literature:

1. https://climate.copernicus.eu
2. Materials provided by S. i A. Pietrucha Sp. z o.o.
3. http://lifevistula.pl/o-projekcie
4. https://kielce.wyborcza.pl/kielce/7,47262,27702047,nietypowa-inwestycja-na-terenie-rezerwatu-przyrody-ma-zatrzymac.html

Vinyl sheet piles, made of durable and resistant material, are gaining popularity due to their versatility. Its applications include small retaining walls, temporary excavation work, slope stabilization, duct cladding, and even anti-chipping protections around bridge foundations.

One of the key advantages of vinyl sheet piles is their ease of transportation and the possibility of using recycled materials. This solution eliminates the need for heavy construction equipment, resulting in minimized logistical costs. Additionally, vinyl sheet piling is not subject to corrosion, unlike traditional steel structures, translating into their long-term durability in aggressive environments.

Vinyl sheet piling also exhibits exceptional resistance to weather conditions, seawater, and extreme temperatures. Their aesthetic appearance makes them suitable for various conditions without requiring maintenance or anti-corrosion protection.

Key aspects of design

Basic geotechnical analysis is based on standards applied to traditional retaining walls, albeit with consideration of the specific properties of the material. It’s worth noting that designing vinyl sheet piles requires certain modifications compared to their steel counterparts. Due to the lower strength of PVC, allowable internal forces are reduced. Additionally, considering the material’s specificity, the possibility of its parameters changing over time, influenced by environmental factors and loading conditions, must be accounted for.

In the design of vinyl sheet piles, an essential aspect becomes not only stress analysis but primarily allowable displacements. Under conditions of prolonged loading, the displacements of vinyl sheet piling become a key criterion for determining their dimensioning.

In the design of durable retaining structures with vinyl sheet piling, according to PN-EN 1997 standards, a key challenge is to consider the effects of aging of plastic materials. These effects can result from the action of ultraviolet radiation, ozone, temperature, stress, and chemical degradation effects. Adopting an appropriate approach to these factors is necessary to ensure the durability and strength of vinyl sheet piling in soil-water environments.

It’s necessary to consider the effects of sustained long-term loading, known as creep. Designers must also carefully analyze the influence of sheet pile temperature, atmospheric conditions, and electrochemical properties of the surrounding soil.

If the sheet pile profile is protected from atmospheric factors for a month, the factor A₃ = 1,0 can be assumed throughout the entire service life.

Traditional methods of analysis, such as the limit equilibrium method or limit state analysis, may not be optimal for vinyl sheet piling. Their flexibility means that the value and distribution of soil pressure, internal forces, and bending moments strongly depend on the stiffness of the structure, the stiffness and strength of the subsoil, and the state of stress in the subsoil.

Furthermore, adopting classical calculation methods can lead to overestimation of displacements of vinyl sheet piling, especially considering their greater susceptibility compared to steel sheet piling. The final choice of the analysis method lies with the designer, however, it is recommended to use more versatile software packages or advanced computational methods.

It’s also important to note the determination of the friction angle δ at the interface between the wall and the soil. Assuming that plastic sheet piling is “low-rough,” the value of the friction angle δ can be determined using an appropriate formula, taking into account the constant k:

According to the DIN 16456-2 standard, it can be assumed that the factor k=0,5.

Neglecting initial frictional resistance and adhesion after driving vinyl sheet piling into cohesive soil is a recommended practice, assuming that conditions without drainage occur immediately after driving. The final increase in these values may occur after some time, which should be considered in the analysis. (As for steel sheet piling being driven). Proof in the ultimate limit state should be carried out according to the theory of elasticity.

Ultimate limit state

In the design and verification of the load capacity of a sheet pile wall with vinyl sheet piling, the principles specified in DIN 16456-2 are applied. This process involves a comprehensive analysis of geotechnical failure mechanisms acting on the retaining structure, taking into account both material strength and structural safety.

The calculated load capacity of vinyl sheet piling, denoted as R_B,d, is determined based on the long-term characteristic strength, R_B,k, using the equation:

The coefficient  YM is a partial safety factor for the material safety of the sheet piling.

The ultimate limit state condition for section capacity is fulfilled when:

, where E_d is the design value of the action, with the relevant strength for dimensioning being the strength at the highest expected temperature.

Vinyl sheet piling undergoes verification for bending and shearing. For the section capacity limit condition under a bending moment M_Ed, the calculated bending moment must be less than or equal to the calculated section capacity of the sheet piling under bending, M_C,Rd:

, where W is the strength indicator of the sheet piling and R_b,k  is characteristic value of the long-term tensile strength of the sheet pile.

The verification of vinyl sheet piling for shear involves a limit condition for the section under the action of shear force V_Ed, which must be less than or equal to the calculated shear load (V_Rd). There is no need to reduce the bending load capacity M_C,Rd if the calculated shear force V_Ed is limited to half of the shear capacity V_Rd.

Although vinyl sheet piling is not primarily designed to carry vertical loads, they may be subjected to such loads in certain situations. In such cases, it is necessary to conduct analyses of vertical load capacity and stability in accordance with PN-EN 1997-1 standards, as well as to check the load capacity and stability of the cross-section under combined bending and compression.

When considering the vertical load capacity of vinyl sheet piling, designers should adhere to European standards.

The resistance values of the side wall and the base of vinyl sheet piling can be adopted according to the guidelines of the EAB (German Geotechnical Society, 2014), similar to those for steel sheet piling. This consistent principle allows for the utilization of experiences regarding steel sheet piling, while simultaneously adjusting them to the specifics of vinyl sheet piling.

Serviceability limit state

In the realm of stress and deformation analysis, the characteristics of sheet piling made from plastics exhibit significant differences compared to steel or concrete structures. Particularly noticeable are the greater deformations, which play a crucial role in designing such retaining walls. It’s worth noting that under small loads, creep deformation is not a concern, as the deformations are minor and progress very slowly. However, under increased loads and higher temperatures, creep deformation can significantly accelerate, which must be taken into account during the design and evaluation of the usability of these structures. When calculating deformations, the nonlinear behavior of stress and strain, as well as the influence of temperature, must be considered.

Criteria regarding the serviceability limit state encompass several significant aspects. Firstly, the limiting deformations necessary to ensure the usability of the retaining wall itself must be considered. Secondly, restrictions on horizontal displacements and vertical settlements are crucial for ensuring the usability of structures directly adjacent to the retaining wall.

All analyses of the serviceability limit state should be conducted following applicable standards and guidelines, such as the PN-EN 1997-1 standard, which contains instructions regarding the determination of limit values and calculation procedures.

Although there are no universal guidelines regarding allowable displacements, values around 1.5% of the wall height are typically accepted. However, the final values will depend on the specific project requirements and environmental considerations.

Summary

It is worth noting that traditional methods of analyzing sheet piling, developed for steel sheet piles, mainly focus on stresses as the criterion for dimensioning. In the case of vinyl sheet piling, characterized by greater deformability, dimensioning becomes more conditioned by the displacements of the structure than stresses. This condition, especially regarding deflection, is crucial.

Safety and usability of the designed structure are paramount, especially if they rely on the effective operation of the drainage system. As a rule, it is recommended to install drainage behind the sheet pile profiles. The consequences of drainage failure, in terms of safety and the costs of potential repairs, should be carefully considered. This emphasizes the need for a holistic approach to design, taking into account both structural and functional aspects, to ensure the durability and effectiveness of vinyl sheet pile walls.

The application of the DIN 16456-2 standard provides a comprehensive methodology for verifying the load-bearing capacity of sheet pile walls with vinyl sheet piling, allowing for precise adaptation to specific project conditions and requirements. Through stress and deformation analysis, as well as appropriate determination of limit values and displacement constraints, safe and efficient utilization of these materials in construction practice can be ensured.

Please, note that a detailed analysis dedicated to the design process involving vinyl sheet piles may be found on the Designer 3.0 platform.

Bibliography

1. Amorim F.C., Souza J.F.B., Mattos H.S., Reis J.M.L., Temperature effect on the tensile properties of unplasticized polyvinyl chloride, DOI: 10.1002/pls2.10067, 14.12.2021
2. Army Corps of Engineers, A study of the Long-Term Applications of Vinyl Sheet Piles, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,72 Lyme Road,Hanover,NH,03755, 08.2003
3. Army Corps of Engineers, Design of sheet pile walls. Engineer Manual 1110-2-2504. (2014). Washington: Department of the Department of the U.S.
4. DIN 16456-1 Plastic sheet piling – Extruded sheet piling of plasticizerfree polyvinylchloride (PVC-U) – Part 1: Product. (2017)
5. DIN 16456-2:2017-10 Plastic sheet piling – Extruded sheet piling of plasticizerfree polyvinylchloride (PVC-U) – Part 2: Dimensions. (2017)
6. DIN 16456-3 Plastic sheet piling – Extruded sheet pilings of plasticizerfree polyvinylchloride (PVC-U) – Part 3: Construction of sheet-pile buildings based on plastic sheet pilings. (2017)
7. EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7 – Geotechnical design – Part 1: General rules. (no date)
8. EN 1997-2: Eurocode 7 – Geotechnical design – Part 2: Ground investigation and testing. (no date)
9. Pietrucha, Guide SuperLock EN
10. Wang Z., et al., Vertical and Lateral Bearing Capacity of FRP Composite Sheet Piles in Soft Soil, Hindawi, Advances in Civil Engineering, Volume 2020, Article ID 8957893

Vinyl sheet piles have been used in the broadly understood infrastructure construction, covering many industries, both on land and in water. Owing to their low weight, ease and speed of installation and exceptional durability, structures made of PVC profiles are becoming more and more popular also in projects previously dominated by traditional technologies. In the case of investments aimed at securing and reinforcement of embankments of watercourses and reservoirs, can vinyl sheet piles be a better choice than technologies such as willow hurdles?

Willow hurdles have been used for centuries in hydroengineering and land reclamation works to reinforce the embankments of water reservoirs and rivers. Additionally, this technology has served for the construction of water retention structures including fish ladders, water thresholds and dams.

Willow hurdles serve several functions, including:

• preventing floodings,
• protecting against bank erosion,
• safeguarding people and/or grazing cattle from falling into the water.

Traditional willow hurdles are characterized by distinctive willow or pine wattles. They prove highly effective in river regulation and safeguarding towns and villages against destructive impact of water.

However, this traditional technology is not entirely free from drawbacks:

• natural materials degrade relatively quickly, requiring frequent repairs or replacements
• weaving willow hurdles itself requires significant skill and experience;
• it is time-consuming, and there are fewer people knowledgeable about the intricacies of willow hurdle weaving,
• despite the use of natural materials, their construction is quite costly.

Alternative to willow hurdles: ecological but durable

Lightweight, durable, and ecologically neutral vinyl sheet piles offer a worthy alternative to the traditional willow hurdles. Profiles made from PVC can be used for both bank reinforcement and to construct water retention structures such as river ladders, dams and sluices or water thresholds.

Vinyl piles are characterized by:

• high durability and resistance to adverse effects of weather, biological factors, and mechanical stress,
• enhanced erosion resistance,
• easy installation, which can be carried out using traditional equipment,
• low weight, making them require minimal transportation efforts and can be safely delivered even to remote locations

Willow hurdles – can vinyl sheet piles replace the centuries old embankment reinforcement technique?

When thinking about methods of protecting the existing banks of ponds and watercourses such as drainage ditches, the most important aspect to pay attention to is the durability of the structure and its reliability.

In this matter, vinyl sheet piles made of PVC material have an undoubted advantage. The warranty for PVC profiles is 50 years because of the extreme resistance of the material to biological, chemical and environmental factors. Moreover, polyvinyl chloride does not corrode in any way. Properly designed and constructed shore protection using vinyl sheet pile technology will certainly stand the test of time in changing water conditions.

On the other hand, in the case of willow hurdles reinforcement, one may talk about a maximum of several years durability, since changing water level significantly will considerably accelerate the decay processes of the wood. For this reason, the willow hurdles reinforcement must be replaced on a cyclical basis.

 Using vinyl sheet piles, despite the initially higher cost, helps ensure that the structure protecting the bank against erosion will last much longer without the necessity to carry out costly maintenance and repair work. Additionally, the low weight of the profiles and their modular structure allow for flexibility in design and ease of transport to the construction site.

Summary

Vinyl sheet piles are definitely worth perceiving as a versatile alternative to traditional methods of embankment protection.

Their ease of installation, durability and environmental benefits, make them a choice worth considering by engineers and decision-makers in the construction and agricultural industries.

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